CITI Qualitative Training Review

This first module plans to teach me: 1) the four fundamental attributes of qualitative research and the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data analysis, 2) how to specify the shared data analysis considerations across the primary qualitative research methods (I’m not sure I even understand what this means), 3) describe the basic qualitative data analysis process, 4) recognize the strengths and limitations of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (QAQDAS), 5) list the considerations that define a rigorous approach to qualitative data analysis and the trustworthiness of the outcomes, and 6) recognize the ethical considerations in qualitative data analysis. 

1. The four fundamental attributes of qualitative research which help us go beyond the obvious or manifest content of the data and instead look for latent meaning by way of context and interconnections are:

Researcher-participant Relationship

Because the researcher and the participant effectively share the “research space”, they must enter a social convention that effectively shapes the context and the meaning of the data being collected. This includes factors like power dynamics, quality of assessment/interview, interpretation by researcher, etc. 

Researcher as Data-gathering Instrument

Related, the researcher/interviewer/moderator guides and facilitates the data-gathering process, and as such becomes the principal data collection tool. The researcher has the power to utilize context and the participant-researcher relationship to discover substantial meaning, but this means that the integrity of the data gathered rests upon the researcher. Researchers need to consider how to mitigate potential researcher-as-instrument (not totally sure what this means) effects by thinking carefully about facets of the research design and potential biases. 

Importance of Context

Important contributors to context include: physical or virtual environment, research mode, juxtaposition of words used by participants and in content analysis, influences from the key attributes associated with the researcher-participant relationship, and the researcher as the data-gathering instrument

Importance of Meaning

Qualitative researchers must consider various ways to explore the importance of meaning or the comprehension of qualitative research data, given its multifaceted attributes; they must find the direct relationship between meaning and context. Connect the contributors to context with potential sources of meaning

• Shared Data Analysis Considerations includes finding the most representative or fitting format of qualitative research and data collection, in order to connect relevant data content from which the research identifies its patterns and attains substantive interpretations. The six primary qualitative research methods and approaches discussed in this course are: In-depth interview; focus group discussion; ethnography; narrative; case study, and; qualitative content analysis. 

1. There is a basic eight-step (or maybe six step?) process to thematic analysis, that leads researchers from “familiarizing yourself with your data” to “producing the report”. A term to know would be unit of analysis, which varies by mode of data-collection but represents an observation event; a single focus group or interview. 

1. Absorb the content and reflect on and record important takeaways
2. Examine the recorded data within each case and across all cases 
3. Develop unique labels or codes
4. Code
5. Identify categories
6. Identify themes or patterns
7. Draw interpretations and implications
8. Verify 

Qualitative Data Analysis Skills:

1. Open-minded and flexible thinking, can consider multiple points of view
2. Aware of and willing to explore the unknown
3. Able to think conceptually
4. Able to develop a narrative in order to convey the interconnections and themes in the data
5. Willing and able to look for evidence that may support or refute study data

• Qualitative Data Analysis Tools refers to knowing the variety of tools and means by which qualitative researchers can analyze their data. This includes microsoft excel and word, text analysis softwares, features embedded into online interview and discussion platforms, and computer-assisted qualitative data analysis softwares. 

There are many softwares such as NVivo, Atlas.ti, MAXQDA, Quirkos, and Dedoos

• Rigorous Qualitative Data Analysis 

One must be rigorous in order to achieve outcomes that are credible, valid, and ultimately useful. Results must be:

Valid and Reliable 

Valid: the correctness and credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation, or other sort of account 

Reliability: consistency of coding across coding, which means addressing the coders and bringing them all on the same page in terms of debriefing, and making time for coders to collaborate to the same consensuses. This also includes the reliability of codebooks and code making, which is done collaboratively in group qualitative analysis contexts. 

• Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Data Analysis  – data must be ethically sourced; data collection and analysis should protect the confidentiality, anonymity and basic rights of participants.

This second module goes over Interview Methods

In-depth Interview Methods

The most used method. Many researchers use in-depth interviews as their only method in a single-method design. This method is popular in single-method, but also in multi-method designs as well as mixed-methods designs. Can accommodate sample sizes from less than 10 to more than 100. 

Types of In-Depth Interviews:

Structured Interview – a strict set of questions asked the same way and in the same order across all interviewees. (least common)

Semi-structured interview – interviewer can adapt the interview guide to each interviewee while also ensuring that the relevant topic areas and interview objectives are met (most popular)

Unstructured Interview – Open-format, and participants are given control of what and how much is said around the broad main topic of interest. 

The In-depth interview requires that the research analyst:

Has a strong understanding of the in-depth interview method

Has conducted some portion or all of the in-depth interviews

Understands the variations of the in-depth interview method and which variation was used to collect the data.

Looks for and is sensitive to indication in the data of undue influences stemming from the researcher-participant relationship 

The structure of the interview follows these stages:

Introductions

General information related to the topic

Awareness, attitudes, and/or behavior related to particular issues

Attitudes specific to the targeted objective and constructive suggestions for improvement

Focus group Discussions:

A discussion among three or more participants who engage in an interactive session to talk about their attitudes and behaviors regarding a shared experience. For this reason they’re not interviews, but “focus group discussions”, “focus groups”, or “group discussions”.  This method of qualitative data-creation/collection stimulates recall and allows for spontaneous ideas/thoughts, and allows people to think out loud, and hear how/if people change their opinions and the basis by which attitudes shift.  It provides a supportive and safe environment in which participants might feel safe enough to reveal personal information, and talk about shared experiences among members. 

Focus groups typically run 90-120 minutes, and can be online or in person. This workshop identifies three types of focus group sizes:

Triads – three participants

Mini group discussions – four to six participants

Full group discussions – seven to ten participants (most common for in-person)

The structure of the interview follows these stages:

Introductions

General information related to the topic

Awareness, attitudes, and/or behavior related to particular issues

Attitudes specific to the targeted objective and constructive suggestions for improvement

The unit of analysis for the focus group is the entire focus group. 

Additional considerations in focus-group mode is group dynamics:

Are the participants groups homogenous or heterogeneous, are the participants involved argumentative or shy or dominate discussions, what is the context of the dynamics that occur in the group discussion?

Ethnography:

Ethnography is using observation, “in-context immersion”, to gather in-depth information about the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of those being observed, ultimately to understand the motivations behind their thoughts and actions

Ethnography is typically paired with in-depth interviews, or also focus group discussions and content analysis of documents. Ethnography can study the culture within healthcare, subcultures, the stigma of a society, shifts in popular views, etc. 

Five Observer Roles are defined by the observer’s proximity to and involvement with the participants and the activity under investigation. There are two nonparticipants roles (on-site and off-site) and three participants roles (passive participant, participant-observer, and complete participants). 

Ethnographers must consider whether they will inform the participants (overt observation) or conduct the observation without the participants’ knowledge (covert observation). Both have potential ethical issues that must be addressed. 

Three primary modes of ethnography:

In-person, face-to-face

Online

Mobile

The discrete unit of analysis is the entirety of an observation event. 

Narrative Research:

Conducting a narrative, exploring and gathering stories of people’s experiences

to learn more about an individual, group of individuals, society and culture, or history. 

This mode includes storytelling, and an integral story which must be held up and facilitated further by the research intentions. Narrative in narrative research is defined as the organized sequence of events into a whole so that significance of each event can be understood through its relation to that whole. As the dominant method in narrative inquiry, the unstructured in-depth interview is often conducted in person. However, it can also involve phone, text, or visual data, such as photographs, drawings, and videos. The length of a narrative interview runs anywhere from 90 minutes or more. Researchers may conduct a narrative interview at one point in time or over several days, weeks, months, or years

Variations of Narrative Research

Life Story

Biographical 

Autobiographical

Case Study: 

Case studies investigate the specific contemporary phenomena that represent clearly identified and defined “bounded systems”. This includes organizations, programs, events, individuals, and groups of people. The inherent complexity of each case demands that researchers design the study using two or more qualitative research methods as appropriate for each type of participant and data content. Most commonly used are in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and qualitative content analysis. 

Usually the interviews and discussions and observations are conducted in person. The length of a case study research investigation will depend on the complexity of each case. An internal focus case study focuses on a single case, while an external case study aims for a broader understanding of the phenomenon under investigation which may include multiple cases. The unit of analysis for case study research is the entire case as defined by the methods used in data collection. 

A challenge or serious consideration for those looking to do a case study  design is how to navigate between a research process in order to learn about the case itself, or learn about the broader phenomenon beyond the case. 

Qualitative Content Analysis

A systematic reduction of content, analyzed with special attention on the context in which the content was created, to identify themes and extract meaningful interpretations of the data. A potential limitation is the possibility of inference, which is deriving interpretations from third-party content. 

Variations of QCA

External content – an analysis of existing content from sources such as the media, historical documents, films, online blog posts, and email communications

Internal content – an analysis of the content produced by the researcher(s) using another qualitative research method, such as in-depth interviews or focus group discussions. 

QCA incorporates sampling into the analysis phase, “By developing a sampling design and collecting the external content, researchers become deeply involved in the decisions made when selecting content and fully informed of the content, which facilitates the remaining steps of the process” This is because the content, the data in analysis, is what the researcher is able to accumulate by their ability and effort. The unit of analysis varies depending on the research objective and external content type.